Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland

Introduction

As the sun set over the vast landscapes of Southern Africa, the colonial ambitions of the British Empire began to weave a complex tapestry of governance, economy, and society across the territories of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland. The British pursuit of control over these regions was not merely a tale of exploration and expansion; it was a saga of strategic policies, transformative events, and profound social and economic shifts.

This chapter embarks on a journey to untangle the key events and policies that led to the British colonization of Southern Rhodesia, exploring the intricate dynamics that shaped the colonial experience in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

Southern Rhodesia as a British Colony

The history of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) is marked by a complex interplay of conquest, colonization, and political evolution. This section explores the process through which Southern Rhodesia was brought under British control, the administrative practices established by colonial authorities, and the resulting socio-economic and political changes that shaped the colony.

It further examines the transition to self-government, the impact of key legislative measures, and the broader implications for the region's development.

Conquest and Colonization

Southern Rhodesia's journey into British dominance began with a forceful conquest led by the British South Africa Company (BSA Company). The company, under the leadership of Cecil Rhodes, used military might to subdue the indigenous populations and claim the territory. This initial conquest was followed by systematic colonization, primarily by white settlers.

Administration by White Native Commissioners

The administration of Southern Rhodesia was characterized by the appointment of White Native Commissioners who were responsible for maintaining order, resolving disputes, and managing the colony's economic interests. These commissioners played a critical role in the daily governance of the colony, including the collection of taxes and the recruitment of labor for the settlers' mines and farms.

Introduction of the Legislative Council

The introduction of a Legislative Council in Southern Rhodesia marked a step towards a limited form of self-governance. This council included both elected members from the settler community and appointees chosen by BSA Company officials. While it provided a mechanism for settler representation, it underscored the controlled nature of colonial governance where real political power remained firmly in the hands of the colonial authorities.

Transition to Responsible Government

In 1923, the BSA Company's rule came to an end, and the colony transitioned to a responsible government system. Sir Charles Coghlan, the first Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia under this new arrangement, oversaw the establishment of a government that was more responsive to settler interests, marking a shift from direct company rule to a form of local governance.

Economic Challenges and Political Shifts

The 1930s brought economic challenges to Southern Rhodesia, notably due to the Great Depression. These economic hardships were compounded by political turmoil, leading to shifts in leadership. The Reform Party's rise to power during this period reflected the broader political and economic strains facing the colony.

Land Apportionment Act and Racial Segregation

The Land Apportionment Act of 1931 was a significant policy that entrenched racial segregation in land allocation. The Act allocated a substantial portion of land to European settlers, while designating specific areas as native reserves. This policy reinforced racial divisions and institutionalized land inequality, exacerbating the socio-economic disparities between settlers and indigenous populations.

Colonial Rule in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland

The early 20th century marked a period of significant transformation in the region now known as Zambia. The formation of Northern Rhodesia and its subsequent development reflect the complexities of colonial administration and the interplay between economic interests and governance.

Formation of Northern Rhodesia

In 1911, a pivotal administrative reorganization resulted in the merger of North-Eastern and North-Western Rhodesia into a single territory named Northern Rhodesia. This consolidation aimed to streamline governance and improve administrative efficiency in the region.

Expansion of Railway Lines

The expansion of railway infrastructure played a crucial role in the economic development of Northern Rhodesia. By 1902, the railway line had reached Victoria Falls, a major milestone in linking the region with broader trade networks. The extension continued, facilitating access to lead and zinc mining areas.

Copper Mining Expansion

The 1920s saw significant developments in the copper mining industry, which became a cornerstone of Northern Rhodesia’s economy. The opening of mines in Luanshya and Mufulira, along with others, resulted in an increase in both African and European populations in mining areas.

The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland

The formation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was a complex process driven by economic ambitions, political strategies, and regional insecurities. Settlers in Northern Rhodesia, motivated by the lucrative copper deposits, pushed for a union with Southern Rhodesia to consolidate their economic interests.

Settler Demands and British Rejection

Initial efforts to amalgamate Southern and Northern Rhodesia encountered legal obstacles and were rejected by the British government. Opposition to the federation was pronounced among African populations, particularly in Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia.

British Government Support

Despite opposition, the British government, driven by economic considerations, supported the federation. The Conservative government anticipated that the economic benefits of the federation would reduce African opposition.

Early Resistance to Colonial Rule

Resistance to colonial rule in Africa manifested in various forms, reflecting the diverse responses of indigenous communities to the imposition of foreign authority. In Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, armed conflicts and protests arose as tribes defended their territories and political structures.

Religious and Political Resistance in Colonial Africa

The late 19th and early 20th centuries in Africa witnessed a complex interplay of religious movements and political resistance against colonial rule. Figures such as John Chilembwe and Elliot Kamwana led religious-based opposition, reflecting how religion became a conduit for resisting colonial domination.

John Chilembwe and the 1915 Uprising

John Chilembwe's resistance against colonial rule in Nyasaland (present-day Malawi) illustrates the intersection of religious conviction and political activism. His dissatisfaction with colonial injustices such as land loss, poor treatment of workers, and forced recruitment for World War I led to the 1915 uprising. Although the rebellion failed, it symbolized the growing willingness of educated Africans to confront colonial systems.

Elliot Kamwana and the Jehovah's Witnesses

Elliot Kamwana, a leader of the Jehovah's Witnesses, played a significant role in spreading religious resistance against colonial authorities in Nyasaland. His criticism of oppressive taxation and land policies, combined with the religious teachings of imminent deliverance, mobilized many Africans. Colonial authorities responded by exiling Kamwana to South Africa.

Welfare Societies and Trade Unions

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Welfare Societies or Native Associations emerged across various African colonies. These organizations, led by educated Africans, aimed to improve the living conditions of their members while addressing grievances related to colonial exploitation. Despite facing financial constraints and resistance from colonial authorities, Welfare Societies laid the groundwork for modern political movements in Africa.

The Emergence and Evolution of Political Activism in Nyasaland

In 1912, the Nyasaland government introduced the District Administrative Ordinance, establishing District Councils featuring Principal Headmen. However, the exclusion of educated Africans from these councils prompted the formation of the Nyasaland Native Association, marking a significant shift towards organized political activism among Africans.

The Formation of the Southern Native Association in 1934

Spearheaded by Greshan Nijilima, the Southern Native Association was a response to the injustices Africans faced under colonial rule. The association presented grievances about labor exploitation and poor treatment on European-owned estates, helping to draw attention to systemic issues affecting African workers.

The Creation of the Mombera Native Association in 1920

Founded in 1920, the Mombera Native Association focused on advocating for policy changes to alleviate African hardships. Despite limited success in influencing colonial policy, the association played a crucial role in challenging colonial exploitation and setting the stage for future activism.

The Formation of the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) in 1944

The culmination of various native associations' efforts led to the formation of the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) in 1944. The NAC opposed the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and played a pivotal role in Nyasaland’s struggle for independence. It represented a significant advance in African political mobilization.

The Evolution of African Activism in Northern Rhodesia

In the early 20th century, African activism in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) began with the formation of welfare associations and trade unions that sought to address socio-economic issues under colonial rule. These early efforts later evolved into political movements that contributed significantly to the independence struggle.

Formation of the Mwenzo Welfare Association in 1923

The Mwenzo Welfare Association, founded by figures such as David Kaunda, marked the beginning of organized African activism in Northern Rhodesia. Inspired by similar movements in neighboring Nyasaland, this association provided a platform for Africans to express their concerns and aspirations in the face of colonial exploitation.

Formation of the Northern Rhodesia African Mine Workers Union (NRAMU)

The Northern Rhodesia African Mine Workers Union (NRAMU), founded in 1949 under the leadership of Lawrence Katilungu, organized a major strike in 1952 demanding improved wages and working conditions. NRAMU played a key role in the labor movement, reflecting the growing power of African activism in the copper-mining regions.

Transition to Political Movements

The transition from welfare and labor activism to political mobilization marked a critical turning point in the independence movement. Many members of welfare associations and trade unions became active in political organizations, such as the African National Congress (ANC), under leaders like Harry Mwanga Nkumbula. This shift underscored the realization that political power was necessary to achieve meaningful change.

The Evolution of African Activism in Southern Rhodesia

In Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), African activism also began with labor unions and later developed into broader political movements. Although formal associations were less prevalent compared to Northern Rhodesia, various organizations emerged to challenge colonial authorities and advocate for African rights.

Founding of the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICWU) in 1927

Founded by Robert Sambo in 1927, the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICWU) focused on labor rights and improving working conditions for African laborers in Southern Rhodesia. The ICWU became a platform for raising awareness of the challenges faced by African communities and advocating for change.

Formation of the Southern African National Congress (SANC) in 1957

The Southern African National Congress (SANC), founded in 1957, represented a significant step in uniting different African communities in the struggle against colonial rule. SANC played a pivotal role in mobilizing African communities, contributing to the broader anti-colonial movement in Southern Africa.

Religious and Political Resistance in Colonial Africa

The late 19th and early 20th centuries in Africa witnessed a complex interplay of religious movements and political resistance against colonial rule. Key figures such as Willie Mokalapa, John Chilembwe, and Elliot Kamwana used religion as a platform for challenging colonial authorities, integrating spiritual beliefs with political activism.

Willie Mokalapa and the South African Ethiopian Movement

Willie Mokalapa emerged as a prominent leader in the South African Ethiopian movement in Basutoland (modern-day Lesotho) in 1899. His efforts, alongside other leaders, aimed to establish an independent African church free from European influence. Despite logistical difficulties and challenges from colonial authorities, Mokalapa’s leadership marked a significant resistance to colonial encroachment.

John Chilembwe and the 1915 Uprising

John Chilembwe’s resistance in Nyasaland culminated in the 1915 uprising. Fueled by his discontent with colonial injustices, Chilembwe led an armed rebellion against British authorities, protesting against land loss, forced labor, and racial inequalities. Although the rebellion was suppressed, Chilembwe’s legacy continued to inspire future nationalist movements across Southern Africa.

Elliot Kamwana and the Jehovah's Witnesses

Elliot Kamwana became a key figure in Nyasaland’s religious and political landscape through his leadership of the Jehovah’s Witnesses movement. His critique of colonial taxation and land policies resonated with many Africans. Kamwana’s exile by colonial authorities further underscored the tensions between African spiritual movements and colonial rule.

Welfare Societies and Trade Unions

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Welfare Societies or Native Associations emerged as a response to colonial exploitation. These organizations, often led by mission-educated Africans, sought to improve the living conditions of their members while advocating for African rights. Despite financial and organizational challenges, these societies laid the foundation for modern political movements in Africa.

Members' Welfare Improvement

The primary aim of Welfare Societies was to enhance the economic, social, and educational conditions of their members. They pooled resources to offer financial assistance and educational opportunities, addressing the immediate needs of African communities under colonial rule.

Advocacy and Grievance Resolution

Welfare Societies also provided a platform for articulating African grievances, including land loss, racial segregation, and discriminatory laws. By voicing these concerns to colonial authorities, these societies hoped to influence policy changes that would mitigate the impact of colonial exploitation.

Legacy and Transition to Political Movements

Although their immediate impact was limited, Welfare Societies played a crucial role in raising political awareness among Africans. The networks and experiences gained through these organizations contributed to the rise of political movements advocating for independence, marking a significant shift from welfare to political activism.

The Emergence of African Activism in Northern Rhodesia

The early 20th century witnessed the emergence of African activism in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia), beginning with the formation of welfare associations and trade unions. These early movements laid the foundation for political organizations that would play a key role in the country’s struggle for independence.

Formation of the Mwenzo Welfare Association in 1923

The Mwenzo Welfare Association, founded by figures such as David Kaunda, was one of the earliest African-led organizations in Northern Rhodesia. It provided a platform for addressing the socio-economic concerns of Africans, serving as a precursor to later political movements.

Expansion of Welfare Societies

By the mid-20th century, welfare societies had expanded across Northern Rhodesia, including in regions such as Ndola, Choma, and Lusaka. These societies played a key role in organizing African communities and advocating for better living conditions, contributing to the broader movement for independence.

Formation of the Northern Rhodesia African Mine Workers Union (NRAMU)

Founded in 1949, the Northern Rhodesia African Mine Workers Union (NRAMU) became a powerful labor organization that represented African miners in their struggle for better wages and working conditions. NRAMU’s activities reflected the growing power of labor movements in Northern Rhodesia, setting the stage for future political mobilization.

Transition to Political Movements

The evolution of African activism in Northern Rhodesia eventually led to the formation of political movements such as the African National Congress (ANC), under the leadership of figures like Harry Mwanga Nkumbula. These movements played a central role in the fight for independence, building on the foundations laid by welfare associations and trade unions.

The Evolution of African Activism in Southern Rhodesia

In Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), African activism began with labor unions and later developed into political movements. Although formal associations were less prevalent compared to Northern Rhodesia, various organizations emerged to challenge colonial authorities and advocate for African rights.

Founding of the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICWU) in 1927

Established by Robert Sambo in 1927, the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICWU) became a key platform for African laborers in Southern Rhodesia to advocate for improved working conditions. The ICWU also provided space for political discussions and critiques of the colonial government.

Formation of the Southern African National Congress (SANC) in 1957

In 1957, the Southern African National Congress (SANC) was formed to unite different African communities in Southern Rhodesia. SANC played a pivotal role in the broader anti-colonial movement, advocating for political change and contributing to the eventual struggle for independence.

Religious and Political Resistance in Southern Africa

Religious movements in Southern Africa played a significant role in shaping political resistance against colonialism. Leaders like Charles Domingo and Elliot Kamwana integrated religious beliefs with political activism, using churches as platforms to challenge colonial rule and advocate for African rights.

Charles Domingo and the African Seventh Day Baptist Church

Charles Domingo, educated at the Livingstonia Mission, established the African Seventh Day Baptist Church in Nyasaland. Domingo combined Christian teachings with African spiritual practices, emphasizing education and social justice. His criticism of missionaries and colonial authorities reflected a broader discontent among Africans who sought greater autonomy and cultural self-determination.

Welfare Societies as a Form of Resistance

Welfare Societies, particularly in Northern and Southern Rhodesia, became important vehicles for African resistance against colonial exploitation. These organizations provided financial aid and educational opportunities for their members while also serving as platforms for addressing grievances related to land, labor, and racial discrimination.

The Role of Trade Unions in African Activism

The emergence of trade unions, particularly in the mining regions of Northern Rhodesia, played a crucial role in organizing African laborers and advocating for better working conditions. Unions such as the Northern Rhodesia African Mine Workers Union (NRAMU) became powerful forces in challenging the colonial labor system and mobilizing political action.

Conclusion

The rise of African nationalism and resistance to colonial rule in Southern Africa was shaped by a complex interplay of socio-economic, political, and religious factors. From the early resistance movements in Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia to the broader anti-colonial movements that culminated in independence, African activists and leaders used various platforms to challenge colonial authority and advocate for self-governance.

Welfare Societies, trade unions, and religious organizations all contributed to the mobilization of African communities and the eventual political transformation of the region. Their efforts laid the groundwork for the modern political movements that ultimately led to the independence of Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), and Nyasaland (Malawi).